We present different constructions for nonprioritized belief revision, that is, belief changes in which the input sentences are not always accepted. First, we present the concept of explanation in a deductive way. Second, we define multiple revision operators with respect to sets of sentences (representing explanations), giving representation theorems. Finally, we relate the formulated operators with argumentative systems and default reasoning frameworks.

Historically, entities with a vested interest in a product that critics have suggested is harmful have consistently used research to back their claims that the product is safe. Prominent examples are: tobacco, lead, bisphenol A, and atrazine. Research literature indicates that about 80–90 % of studies with industry affiliation found no harm from the product, while only about 10–20 % of studies without industry affiliation found no harm. In parallel to other historical debates, recent studies examining a possible relationship between (...) mercury exposure and autism spectrum disorder show a similar dichotomy. Studies sponsored and supported by industry or entities with an apparent conflict of interest have most often shown no evidence of harm or no “consistent” evidence of harm, while studies without such affiliations report positive evidence of a Hg/autism association. The potentially causal relationship between Hg exposure and ASD differs from other toxic products since there is a broad coalition of entities for whom a conflict of interest arises. These include influential governmental public health entities, the pharmaceutical industry, and even the coal burning industry. This review includes a systematic literature search of original studies on the potential relationship between Hg and ASD from 1999 to date, finding that of the studies with public health and/or industry affiliation, 86 % reported no relationship between Hg and ASD. However, among studies without public health and/or industry affiliation, only 19 % find no relationship between Hg and ASD. The discrepancy in these results suggests a bias indicative of a conflict of interest. (shrink)

This dissertation is an investigation into the ground of moral objectivity. My preliminary claim is that in order to be objective, moral properties must be real properties. The following question is, what kind of properties are moral properties? A number of recent philosophers have argued that moral properties are natural properties. ''Natural" in this context means " open to investigation and discovery by the senses or by empirical science." The natural properties proposed in the recent literature are connected to the (...) property of human well-being. The main project of my dissertation is to show that natural properties are not adequate as the foundation for moral objectivity, because there is no necessary connection between any natural properties and moral properties. Another answer to the question of what kind of properties moral properties are is that they are supernatural properties. "Supernatural" in this context means "not open to investigation and discovery by the senses, or by empirical science." It is my argument that a singular supernatural being who created the world and has particular ideas about what sorts of people/actions/states of affairs are good and bad or right and wrong is the only sufficient ground for moral objectivity. Given such a being, moral properties will be real and objective. They will also be moral properties, since the originator of these properties confers value on them. Using and expanding on work in Divine Command Theory, especially that of Robert M. Adams, my original contribution to this discussion is to propose that moral properties are relational properties. The relationship is between persons, actions, states of affairs, etc., in the physical world, and the ideas, desires, character, or commands of the supernatural being. An important limitation of my dissertation project is that I do not consider any practical issues such as "How do we know whether God exists?", "How would God communicate the content of morality to us?", or "What is God like?" These are important and worthwhile questions, but are not a part of my present investigation. (shrink)

I evaluate two claims; that (a) Jesus’ message as recorded in the gospels implies exclusivism with respect to salvation and that, correspondingly, (b) Christians should be exclusivists with respect to salvation. I evaluate these claims through a cataloguing and evaluation of the logical condition involved in each of the claims regarding conditions for salvation made by Jesus in the Gospel of John. As a result, I argue that (a) is false and that, correspondingly, so is (b).

We investigated the properties of the sustained attention to response task . In the SART, participants respond to frequent neutral signals and are required to withhold response to rare critical signals. We examined whether SART performance shows characteristics of speed–accuracy tradeoffs and in addition, we examined whether SART performance is influenced by prior exposure to emotional picture stimuli. Thirty-six participants in this study performed SARTs after being exposed to neutral and negative picture stimuli. Performance in the SART changed rapidly over (...) time and there was a high correlation between participants errors of commission rate and their reaction time to the neutral targets . Regardless of exposure self-reported thoughts significantly correlated with both errors of commission and reaction times. Overall, the results support the view that the SART is a better measure of impulsive responding than sustained attention. (shrink)

The first chapter of the book is a helpful review of much of the current literature on action theory, focused around the idea of “volition.” Enç’s foil, set out in this chapter, is the existence of “irreducible mental acts”—acts that have no antecedent events as causes—as defended by proponents of agent causation. He claims he can fully account for human action without appeal to such acts.

In this article we explore multiple change operators, i.e., operators in which the epistemic input is a set of sentences instead of a single sentence. We propose two types of change: prioritized change, in which the input set is fully accepted, and symmetric change, where both the epistemic state and the epistemic input are equally treated. In both kinds of operators we propose a set of postulates and we present different constructions: kernel changes and partial meet changes.

Historically, entities with a vested interest in a product that critics have suggested is harmful have consistently used research to back their claims that the product is safe. Prominent examples are: tobacco, lead, bisphenol A, and atrazine. Research literature indicates that about 80–90% of studies with industry affiliation found no harm from the product, while only about 10–20% of studies without industry affiliation found no harm. In parallel to other historical debates, recent studies examining a possible relationship between mercury exposure (...) and autism spectrum disorder show a similar dichotomy. Studies sponsored and supported by industry or entities with an apparent conflict of interest have most often shown no evidence of harm or no “consistent” evidence of harm, while studies without such affiliations report positive evidence of a Hg/autism association. The potentially causal relationship between Hg exposure and ASD differs from other toxic products since there is a broad coalition of entities for whom a conflict of interest arises. These include influential governmental public health entities, the pharmaceutical industry, and even the coal burning industry. This review includes a systematic literature search of original studies on the potential relationship between Hg and ASD from 1999 to August 2015, finding that of the studies with public health and/or industry affiliation, 86% reported no relationship between Hg and ASD. However, among studies without public health and/or industry affiliation, only 21% find no relationship between Hg and ASD. The discrepancy in these results suggests a bias indicative of a conflict of interest. (shrink)

In this article, we propose the Fair Priority Model for COVID-19 vaccine distribution, and emphasize three fundamental values we believe should be considered when distributing a COVID-19 vaccine among countries: Benefiting people and limiting harm, prioritizing the disadvantaged, and equal moral concern for all individuals. The Priority Model addresses these values by focusing on mitigating three types of harms caused by COVID-19: death and permanent organ damage, indirect health consequences, such as health care system strain and stress, as well as (...) economic destruction. It proposes proceeding in three phases: the first addresses premature death, the second long-term health issues and economic harms, and the third aims to contain viral transmission fully and restore pre-pandemic activity. -/- To those who may deem an ethical framework irrelevant because of the belief that many countries will pursue "vaccine nationalism," we argue such a framework still has broad relevance. Reasonable national partiality would permit countries to focus on vaccine distribution within their borders up until the rate of transmission is below 1, at which point there would not be sufficient vaccine-preventable harm to justify retaining a vaccine. When a government reaches the limit of national partiality, it should release vaccines for other countries. -/- We also argue against two other recent proposals. Distributing a vaccine proportional to a country's population mistakenly assumes that equality requires treating differently situated countries identically. Prioritizing countries according to the number of front-line health care workers, the proportion of the population over 65, and the number of people with comorbidities within each country may exacerbate disadvantage and end up giving the vaccine in large part to wealthy nations. (shrink)

There are several approaches implementing reasoning based on conditional knowledge bases, one of the most popular being System Z (Pearl, Proceedings of the 3rd conference on theoretical aspects of reasoning about knowledge, TARK ’90, Morgan Kaufmann Publishers Inc., San Francisco, CA, USA, pp. 121–135, 1990). We look at ranking functions (Spohn, The Laws of Belief: Ranking Theory and Its Philosophical Applications, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2012) in general, conditional structures and c-representations (Kern-Isberner, Conditionals in Nonmonotonic Reasoning and Belief Revision: (...) Considering Conditionals as Agents, vol. 2087 of LNCS, Springer, Berlin, 2001) in order to examine the reasoning strength of the different approaches by learning which of the known calculi of nonmonotonic reasoning (System P and R) and Direct Inference are applicable to these inference relations. Furthermore we use the recently proposed Enforcement-postulate (Kern-Isberner and Krümpelmann, Proceedings of the 22nd international joint conference on artificial intelligence, vol. 2, IJCAI’11, AAAI Press, pp. 937–942, 2011) to show dependencies between these approaches. (shrink)

Ethisch gutes Handeln ist tätige Liebe, die vom Gewissen geleitet wird - das ist die Einsicht dieses Ethikentwurfs. Worin ein solches Handeln besteht, wird in allen ethisch relevanten Beziehungen untersucht. Ausgangspunkt ist, im Geiste von Husserls Phänomenologie, das erfahrende, wertende und handelnde Subjekt: Die Frage nach dem ethisch guten Handeln wird zur Frage nach dem Selbstverständnis des Ichs und der Bedeutung, welche die Mitmenschen und die Umwelt für es haben. So zeigt der Autor, wie ein ethisch gutes und somit glückliches (...) Leben für den Einzelnen heute möglich ist. Er baut auch auf osteuropäische, chinesische und jüdische Philosophie-Traditionen und wird damit einer Gegenwart gerecht, in der die Menschheit durch neue Wege der Kommunikation zu einem Gefüge geworden ist. (shrink)

Consensus around what constitutes researcher conflicts of interest (COIs) and awareness of their influence on our research are two critical steps in ensuring the integrity of our science. In this research, data were collected from individual scholars via 2 surveys 5 years apart and from journals and associations to examine the level of social consensus and moral awareness among scholars, journals, and associations regarding researcher COIs. Although we observed increases in level of social consensus and moral awareness between 2012 and (...) 2017, results still revealed limited agreement about what relationships constitute a COI and limited awareness about the presence of and the ethical issues surrounding COIs. Although all journals and associations we examined supported COI disclosure, most did not provide researchers with detailed COI-related information, guidance, or disclosure tools. Limited social consensus and moral awareness regarding COIs is problematic because it inhibits the recognition, disclosure, and management of COIs and limits ethical decision making. We need to continue and enhance discussions about COIs and aim to create consensus and awareness where we do not have it with the goal of reducing potential scientific misconduct related to COIs. (shrink)

The gesture-as-simulated-action framework explains the occurrence of iconic gestures. Accordingly, simulated visual imagery gives rise to observer-viewpoint, whereas simulated motor imagery gives rise to character-viewpoint gestures. Because little is known about whether this relationship is either the product of becoming a competent speaker in different communicative tasks or exists from an early age, we investigated 4-year-olds. In the first session, 55 children performed three different communicative tasks. In the second session, we administered a SON-R non-verbal intelligence test to assess children’s (...) cognitive abilities. Results revealed a strong association between the frequency with which children used observer-viewpoints gestures and their scores in visual processing abilities. Because the association between gestures and visuospatial cognitive abilities was found across three communicative tasks, we can propose that it is a general ability rather than a phenomenon of task-specific discourse competence. We discuss these findings in terms of gestural threshold and cognitive offloading. (shrink)

Womit beschäftigt sich die medizinische Wissenschaft? Ich verstehe ja natürlich nichts davon, aber sie beschäftigt sich doch mit dem Menschen. Und die Juristerei, die Gesetzgebung und Rechtsprechung? Auch mit dem Menschen.

When young children learn to use language, they start to use their hands in co‐verbal gesturing. There are, however, considerable differences between children, and it is not completely understood what these individual differences are due to. We studied how children at 4 years of age employ speech and iconic gestures to convey meaning in different kinds of spatial event descriptions, and how this relates to their cognitive abilities. Focusing on spontaneous illustrations of actions, we applied a semantic feature (SF) analysis (...) to characterize combinations of speech and gesture meaning and related them to the child's visual‐spatial abilities or abstract/concrete reasoning abilities (measured using the standardized SON‐R test). Results show that children with higher cognitive abilities convey significantly more meaning via gesture and less solely via speech. These findings suggest that young children's use of cospeech representational gesturing is positively related to their mental representation and reasoning abilities. (shrink)

De moderne geschiedwetenschap worstelt sinds haar ontstaan in de 19de eeuw met het probleem van het historisme. De resultaten van de moderne geschiedwetenschap werden aan het begin van de vorige eeuw met enthousiasme begroet en deden een ongekend grote belangstelling voor het verleden ontstaan. De ‘nieuwe’ historische methode, die bestond in een positivistische, empirisch-analytische aanpak, bleek in zijn toepassing echter een katalysator van een manifest relativisme in de geschiedwetenschap. De idealistische geschiedfilosofie werd erdoor ontmanteld, maar ook de geschiedenis zelf werd (...) steeds nauwkeuriger en preciezer ontleed. Wat bleef er aan samenhang en betekenis in de geschiedenis over? Het boven dit artikel afgedrukte citaat van Troeltsch geeft de kern van het probleem aan. Het is de historische problematiek van het ‘vergruisde beeld’, zoals J. Romein het eens aanduidde. In dat ‘vergruisde beeld’ is ook alles wat zin, waarde en norm heet in de geschiedenis ontbonden. Het gaat althans schuil achter massa’s feiten die zich maar niet samen lijken te willen voegen in een algemene betekenis. (shrink)

In lieu of an abstract, here is a brief excerpt of the content:Parenting Adults with ASD: Lessons for Researchers and CliniciansCassandra R. Newsom, Amy S. Weitlauf, Cora M. Taylor, and Zachary E. WarrenRecent reviews of treatments for individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) reveal how little we still know about how to help adolescents with ASD and their families successfully transition into adulthood (Shattuck et al., 2012b; Taylor et al., 2012a). Shattuck and colleagues found that services in the United States (...) for adults with ASD were marked by high unemployment rates, a reliance on families to provide care across the lifespan, high turnover rates in front-line service providers, insufficient transition planning for high school students, and generally insufficient services to meet current needs. In a recent Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ) Comparative Effectiveness Review, the authors similarly found that there is very little evidence available to pinpoint specific intervention approaches for adolescents and young adults with ASD due to a lack of good quality studies. This was especially true for evidence-based approaches to support the transition of youth with ASD to adulthood (Taylor et al., 2012a).For the last decade, with dramatic increases in both ASD awareness and estimates of ASD prevalence, our field has understandably focused intensely on improving early detection and treatment of ASD. Our diagnostic tools and understanding of ASD presentation in very young children has improved tremendously. Different from many of the young adults in these stories, who were often diagnosed in their early teens, we now aim to identify children well before their third birthdays. Research has consistently shown that early and intense ASD-specific intervention can dramatically enhance outcomes for children with ASD. As such, there has been heavy investment in attempting to take full advantage of this early window of neuro-plasticity. However, as these stories illustrate, these children grow up. Their needs change, and our systems are often poorly equipped to help them live fulfilling lives, capitalize on their talents, and obtain independence and equal access, while still providing a safe, supportive environment. Without readily accessible and understandable coordinated systems of care, parents are forced to adopt the multiple roles of case manager, teacher, therapist, community educator, advocate, job coach, housing specialist, financial planner, and often, lifelong caregiver. These stories eloquently illustrate those struggles and successes.Grief and Joy: Opposite Sides of the Same Parenting CoinThe idea of grieving a diagnosis is controversial. Many of the writers seemed to feel conflicted about their grief responses and the validity of their feelings. Research shows that many families view the diagnostic process as extremely stressful (Siklos & [End Page 199] Kerns, 2005; Heiman, 2002). Feelings of sadness, anxiety, and depression are common at the point of diagnosis and may reemerge as milestones pass unmet. Families must modify the futures they imagined for their children and begin to envision new goals and dreams. Anonymous Three described this process when she wrote:Most children grow up, go to school, get jobs, move out of their parents’ home, etc. My husband and I have had to seriously consider how much of these are even possible for a young man with autism, even one who has a good number of functional life skills.Tasks of adolescence and adulthood such as starting high school, driving a car, and moving out of the house may be delayed and hard won if met. Raising a child with ASD appears to have particular challenges. Throughout this process, families begin to redefine what “success” means. Rather than ascribing to societal standards, they find joy in personal milestones. McDonald described the triumph of teaching his nephew to shake women’s hands instead of touching their hair, an important safety goal that took three months to accomplish. Each family thereby creates its own path.People outside of the family often do not understand the complicated interplay of love and obligation as well as the frustration and fulfillment that families experience. Just like any family, the parents of children with ASD describe many joys in addition to their struggles. They see their children’s strengths in a world that too often focuses on their weaknesses. Gifted with the everyday experience of their child’s development, they see past the necessity of a... (shrink)

In diesem Fazit & Ausblick werden nun die in der Einleitung formulierten Themenfelder, in denen wir auch die Anschlüsse an Arbeiten und Forschungsgebiete der Historischen Anthropologie gegeben sahen, wieder aufgegriffen. Dies geschieht entlang von Aspekten, die durch die responses aufgeworfen wurden, und die wir hinsichtlich unserer Forschung zu Arenen transkultureller Bildung weiterdenken. Ein wichtiger Schwerpunkt liegt dabei auf den Transmissionseffekten, die sich im Forschungsprozess, auch unter Einbezug der responses, zwischen den Forschungsfeldern – den Arenen Theater und Schule – ergeben haben. (...) Daran anschließend formulieren wir die Implikationen, die sich daraus für die Weiterentwicklung unserer Methoden ergeben haben, sowie einen Ausblick, der sich den Möglichkeiten der Erweiterung der Forschung zu kultureller Bildung unter Einbezug postkolonialer und transkultueller Analyseperspektiven widmet. Wir haben in den drei Method Labs„Method Mixing: Methoden der Praxis in postmigrantischen Kontaktzonen“ (November 2017); „Towards new methodologies in transcultural education: Performativity of the digital, Material Feminism and transcultural analysis” (Juni 2018) und “Arenas of transcultural Education: artistic research, art based methods, New Materialism and Sensory Ethnography“ (Januar 2019). Praktiker*innen und Wissenschaftler*innen, die aus unterschiedlichen Disziplinen und Forschungsschwerpunkten kommen und in verschiedenen europäischen Universitäten und Institutionen forschen und arbeitenSound Studies, Historische und pädagogische Anthropologie; Allgemeine Erziehungswissenschaft, Anglistik und Postcolonial Studies, Global Childhood & Youth Studies, International Childhood Studies, Grundschulpädagogik, Theaterpädagogik und Dramaturgie sowie Lehrerbildung, künstlerische Forschung und kulturelle Bildung., eine Auswahl des über drei Jahre im Feld erhobenen Materials, das Method Mixing der beiden Arenen Schule und Theater, sowie unsere diffraktionellen Analysen, die entstandenen Interferenzen, und das sich daraus entwickelnde Method Mixing des Projekts vorgestellt. Nach intensiven, über zwei Tage andauernden Diskussionen über das unseren Gästen der Method Labs vorgestellte Material haben wir diese um eine Verschriftlichung ihrer responses gebeten. Die Wahl des Themas sowie des Umfangs und der Form wurden dabei freigestellt. Herausgekommen sind sehr unterschiedliche, und, wie wir finden, im Kern ebenfalls diffraktionell operierende Antworten, die in den vorangegangen Kapiteln vorgestellt wurden. (shrink)

In lieu of an abstract, here is a brief excerpt of the content:98 HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY quoted in great numbers. The other is Kern's philosophical competence and his skill in handling complex problems. The book is divided into two parts. Part I gives the reader a brief historical survey of Husserl's changing attitudes toward Kant and the neo-Kantians (especially Natorp and ttickert). Indicating the influences which shaped Husserl's thinking during the years of his studies at the universities of Berlin (...) and Vienna, Kern traces Husserl's development throughout his career as a thinker and a writer. But this survey (pp. 1-50) provides merely the general framework within which the intensive and detailed analyses of Part II (pp. 51-424) must be viewed. Two appendices, an extensive bibliography, and a name index complete the work. The detailed discussions of Part II are, of course, the really important contributions to our understanding of Husserl's relation to Kant and the Kantians. As was to be expected, Husserl found in Kant's works formulations of problems and profound insights that he regarded as crucial to any philosophy. At times, however, Husserl was sure that because of mistaken assumptions, insufficiently clarified presuppositions, and methodological deficiencies Kant himself had not fully realized his intentions. Still, it is evident that, in time, Husserl found himself increasingly in sympathy with Kant's postion. In fact, in the end he used Kant's term "transcendental idealism" to designate his own philosophy. In the course of this development, however, Husserl's thinking underwent various changes and reversals. The detailed analyses of them make fascinating reading and are most revelatory of Husserl's own struggles with obtrnsive problems. In Chapter z of Part II (pp. 55-134), the author discusses Husserl's criticism of Kant's positionwKant's conception of the apriori, his strict separation of "sensibility" and "understanding," his presupposition of a "natural world view," his failure to ask sufficiently radical questions concerning the foundations of knowledge, his lack of a proper method of analysis, and his "psychologism." In the course of his own development, however, Husserl modified and, in some respects, even reversed his criticisms of Kant. Chapters ~, m, re and v of Part II, dealing with problems of formal and transcendental logic, with the possibihty of metaphysics on Kantian principles, and with the complex problems of subjectivity, bear witness to the fact that Huseerl often changed his opinion of Kant's work. Of special interest, however, is Chapter vz. It is devoted to a comparison of Husserl's and Kant's "transcendental idealism" and reveals most strikingly the similarities of the two positions. The chapter dealing with Husserl's relation to l~atorp and Rickert, interesting in its own way, is essentially only a footnote, as it were, to the rest of the hook; but it completes the survey. As I said before, this book gives us not only a remarkable insight into the various phases of development in Husserl's thinking and is therefore indispensable to a real understanding of Husserl's intentions and achievements; it also lets us see Kant's philosophy in a new and revealing perspective--both as to its value and it deficiencies. Only a detailed study can do justice to this book. W. H. WF~mMF~STZR Florida State University Ludwig Wittgenstein. Zettel. Edited by G. E. M. Anscombe and G. H. von Wright. Translated by G. E. M. Anscombe. (University of California Press and Basil Blackwell, 1967. Pp. v + 124 [German and English on facing pages]. $6.95.) The paragraphs in this volume, the editors tell us, were collected in a box-file by Wittgenstein from a period beginning in 1929,though the bulk of them come from typescripts dictated between 1945 and 1948. The editors credit Peter Geach with the major work of arrangement. Whoever is responsible did a superlative job, a remark that holds as well for Miss Anscombe's translation. The editors and Mr. Geach have performed an invaluable service to those interested BOOK REVIEWS 99 in Wittgenstein and--quite apart from Wittgensteinian exegesis--in the problems treated in these pages. The philosophical topics are those of the Investigations (PI) and The Remarks on the Foundations o] Mathematir~ (RFM)---e.g., the attack on... (shrink)

Ideology of Power and Power of Ideology in Early China. Edited by Yuri Pines, Paul R. Goldin, and Martin Kern. Sinica Leidensia, vol. 124. Leiden: Brill, 2015. Pp. viii + 348. €120, $152.

Für Adornos Ästhetik ist der Begriff der ästhetischen Wahrheit zentral. Durch ihn versucht Adorno die beiden repräsentativen modernen Ästhetiken, die Kants und die Hegels, dialektisch zu vermitteln. Kunstwerke sind nach Adorno einerseits (und darin mit Hegel übereinstimmend) Medium der Wahrheit, zugleich jedoch (und darin Kant folgend) nicht zu begreifen, sondern nur ästhetisch zu erfahren. Wonho Lee geht in ihrer detaillierten Studie dieser Doppelkonzeption nach und prüft auf diese Weise, ob Adornos Kunstkonzeption in ihrem systematischen Kern aufgeht. Obgleich das Ergebnis (...) negativ ausfällt, schliesst sich die Autorin Adornos Leitgedanken, ästhetische Erfahrung als Kritik zu begreifen, an und schlägt eine modifizierte Konzeption vor." -- Publisher's description. (shrink)

Eine kritische Untersuchung der moralphilosophischen Entwürfe von 1. Kant, M. G. Singer und R. M. Hare -/- Der vorliegenden Untersuchung liegt die Überzeugung zugrunde, dass die Idee der Verallgemeinerung ein zentraler Bestandteil eines jeden an den Prinzipien der Vernunft orientierten Moralsystems ist. In theoretischer Hinsicht bildet ein morallogisches Verallgemeinerungspostulat unsere fundamentale Vorstellung von der Unparteilichkeit moralischer Vorschriften und der normativen Gesetzgebung beziehungsweise der Gleichheit aller Menschen bezüglich ihrer Rechte und Pflichten ab. Diese Vorstellung besagt im Kern, dass es ungerecht (...) wäre, zwei Individuen moralisch unterschiedlich zu behandeln. Der hierin implizit enthaltene ethische Verallgemeinerungsgedanke wird anhand einer Diskussion der Ethiken I. Kants, M. G. Singers und R. M. Hares analysiert, indem seine je unterschiedliche Ausgestaltung durch die drei prominenten Autoren systematisch herausgearbeitet wird. Darüber hinaus wird die weitergehende Problemfrage nach der allgemeinen Struktur und den Bedingungen der Möglichkeit verallgemeinerungsethischen Argumentierens untersucht. Die Offenlegung der allgemeinen Struktur moralischer Argumentation mittels Verallgemeinerung führt den Autor auf die Spur, wie eine Synthese der gemeinhin als unvereinbar geltenden ethischen Positionen Kants und des Utilitarismus im Rahmen einer Verallgemeinerungsethik zu denken sei, wobei klar wird, dass ein solcher Brückenschlag nicht „verlustfrei“ möglich ist. (shrink)

Die gegenwartigen Herausforderungen des internationalen Verhaltnisses sind Gemeingut: Gewalt zwischen und in Staaten, Bedrohung durch Massenvernichtungswaffen, der zunehmende globale Wirtschaftsverkehr. Durch sie ist souverane Staatlichkeit als Kern politischer Handlungsoptionen, rechtlicher Begriffsbildung und ihrer wissenschaftlichen Erfassung problematisch geworden. Oft erscheint der Ruckzug auf staatliche Selbstbehauptung oder die Einrichtung einer globalen Zwangsgewalt als einzige Losung. Welches Potential im Gegensatz dazu in dem auf Kant zuruckgehenden Gedanken internationaler Kooperation liegt, untersuchten Vertreter verschiedener Fachrichtungen im Rahmen der im Band dokumentierten interdisziplinaren Tagung des (...) Seminars fur Rechtsphilosophie an der Universitat Hamburg.". (shrink)

Husserl on the Ego and its Eidos (Cartesian Meditations, IV) ALFREDO FERRARIN THE THEORY OF the intentionality of consciousness is essential for Husserl's philosophy, and in particular for his mature theory of the ego. But it runs into serious difficulties when it has to account for consciousness's transcendental constitution of its own reflective experience and its relation to immanent time. This intricate knot, the inseparability of time and constitution, is most visibly displayed in Husserl's writings from the 192os up to (...) the notion of the eidos ego in the fourth Cartesian Meditation. In this paper I want to dwell on the most problematic aspects of this theory. After a few preliminary remarks about the intentionality of consciousness (sec- tion 1), I try to place the theory of the substrate of habitualities in the context of Husserl's evolution on the issue of the reflection of the ego on itself (section ~). I briefly follow the threads of Husserl's shifting position from the Logical Investi- gat/ons and Ideas I to Ideas II, the Cartesian Meditations and the Cr/s/s. I indicate Husserl's works are quoted with the following abbreviations: CM = Cartesiani.~he Meditationen, Husserliana Bd. I, hrsg. v. S. Strasser (Den Haag, 195o); Carte- s/an M~, trans. D. Cairns (Dordrecht, 196o ) SW = Husserl, Shorter Works, ed. P. McCormick and F. Elliston (Notre Dame, 198a) IZ = Zur Phttnomenologie des inneren Zeilheun~tseim (z 893-z 917), Husserliana Bd. X, hrsg. v. R. Boehm (Den Haag, 1966 ) Ideen I = ldeen zu einer reinen Ph~nomenologie und ph~nomenologischen Philosophic, Husserliana Bd. III, hrsg. v. W. Biemel (Den Haag, t95o); Ideas I, trans. F. Kersten (The Hague, Boston, Lancaster, s983) ldeen// = ld., Hussefliana Bd. IV, hrsg. v. M. Biemel (Den Haag, 1952); Ideas I1, trans. R. Rojcewicz and A. Schuwer (Dordrecht, Boston, London, x 989) FTL = Forma/e und transzendenta~ Log/k, Husserliana Bd. XVII, hrsg. v. P. Janssen (Den Haag, t974) Kr/sh = Kr/s/s der europ~/schen W/ssen~haften, Husserliana Bd. VI, hrsg. v. W. Biemel (Den Haag, 1954) I wish to express my gratitude to Pierre Kerszberg and Alessandra Fussi for their helpful com- ments on an earlier draft of the paper, and to Graham Harman for checking the final version of my English text. [645] 646 JOURNAL OF THE HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY 32:4 OCTOBER 1994 some historical antecedents, in particular Aristotle, of Husserl's theory of abid- ing properties which, as far as I can see, have not been pointed out before. Husserl's Entwicklungsgeschichte on the topic of the pure ego has already been the object of important scholarly works, of which Kern's 1964 Husserl und Kant seems to me the best example. But what the secondary literature does not do is develop thematically the ambiguities of Husserl's definitions of consciousness and temporality in a unitary and comprehensive way. While I follow the lead of Berger, Broekman, Kern, Marbach,' and others, I find that their work does not sufficiently stress the difficulties at the core ofintentionality and reflective time- consciousness. Therefore, although section 2 is a necessary presupposition for drawing some critical conclusions in the final two sections, it does not exhaust my theme. After clarifying the peculiarity of the notions of essence, intuition, tran- scendental and apriori, as well as their irl:educibility to a Kantian meaning, I turn to the "de facto transcendental ego" resulting from eidetic variation (section 3) in order to introduce an examination of temporality. The difficul- ties in the twofold requirement, namely, that consciousness be the identical subject of its Erlebnisse and be synthetically unified in time, concern the unity, primacy, and mutual relation of time and consciousness in the constitution of our experience. They have been heady pointed out by Ricoeur in his commen- tary on the Cartesian Meditations. But what I want to argue in section 4, going beyond Ricoeur's text, is that the tension between temporally constituted and constitutive consciousness in the ego's reflection on its own retentions and protensions does not simply make the question of time ambiguous, but has crucial and problematic bearings on the very definition of consciousness as intentionality. In this respect... -/- . (shrink)

In lieu of an abstract, here is a brief excerpt of the content:BOOK REVIEWS 95 direction, it opens a field of pure philosophy, unencumbered by surds such as finite man. Only if the Phenomenology is taken as a monographic work on man can there be difficulty. Let us hasten to add that, on the very premises of his book, Loewenberg's criticism of Hegel is tentative rather than apodictic; its harshness is relieved through the dialogue form. And perhaps, the interlocutors will, (...) as one of them suggests, "resume (their) conversations with fresh minds at a later date" (p. 371). They might find that they have to go beyond the limits of exoteric discussion. Or, conversely, they might find that exoteric treatment can yield no more than an anthropological reading and is, in fact, bound up with it. If Loewenberg 's extant commentary did no more than demonstrate this negative point, however implicitly,it would be of great merit. But there is of course much more: there is the substance of Loewenberg's commentary, largely unaffected by the above counter-representations. Theoretical problems aside, the supreme value of the book lies in its clarity and perceptiveness, in the "sense" it makes of the Phenomenology. Of a kind all its own, it will henceforth serve as the preferred entrance to Hegel. KLAUS HARTMANN Bonn, W. Germany Arthur Hfibscher, editor. XXXVIlI. Schopenhauer-Jahrbuch ]~r das Jahr 1957. (Frankfurt/ Main: Waldemar Kramer, 1967.Pp. v + 244.) Schopenhauer: Philosophe de l'Absurde. By Clement Brosset. (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1967.Pp. ix [i] -b 107.Paper, F. 7.--) Manches in dem Jahrbuch ist rein anekdotisch; manches bio- oder bibliographisch. Einiges h~ngt nur sehr lose mit Schopenhauer zusammen; so der liingste Beitrag (K. Engisch, "Todesstrafe--ja oder nein?,") mit nfitzlicher historischer und systematiseher Ubersieht, die zum Ergebnis kommt, dass die Argumente gegen die Todesstrafe iiberwiegen. Von gesetzgeberischen Interessen getragen ist such G. Zoebe, "Sind die Tiere rechtlos?" Der zweitliingste Beitrag (H. Voigt, 'r0ber Schopenhauers Erkenntnistheorie,') enth~ilt eine Art von Variationen sum Thema des Zusammenhanges zwischen Charakter und Schicksah Man freut sich, dass ein Inder (Kanti Chandra Pandey) sich fiber Schopenhauers Kenntnis des Hinduismus und Buddismus eehr anerkennendausspricht. Das Bild der Sehopenhauerschen Philosophie, wie es uns im Jahrbuch begeguet ist das uns vertraute: Pessimismus, ErlSsung durch Kunst, Mitleid, Verneinung des Willens. Aber nach Brosset erfassen diese Kategorien nur die sekund~ren Charaktere der Schopenhauerschen Philosophie. In ihrem wirklich wertvollen Kern sei diese Philosophie erstens Vorl~uferin der yon Brosset so genannten genealogischen Philosophie eines Marx, Nietzsche und Freud; allerdings letzten Endes ein Versager, da sie auf das eigentliche Anliegen der genealogischen Philosophie, n~mlich die Ableitung konkreter und spezifischer Ideen (bei Schopenhauer: der Intelligenz) aus der Umformung unbewusster Tatbestiinde (bei Schopenhauer: des Willens), nicht eingehe, sondern sich mit der Feststellung begniigt, dass die Wurzel der (bewussten) InteUigenz der (unbewusste) Wille ist. Zweitens sei Schopenhauer der erste, der seine Philosophie auf der Urerfahrung der Grundlosigkeit (Brosset zieht den Ausdruck Absurdit~t vor), daher Unausdenkbarkeit oder Unergrfindlichkeit des Seins im ganzen, aufbaut. Auf diese Erfahrung (die Frage, 'Warum nicht Nichts?' ist unbeantwortbar) reagiere der Menseh mit Angst. Die Notwendigkeit und die Zweckm~issigkeit, die die Welt im ganzen charskterisieren, seien selbst kontingent und zwecklos. Manchmal scheint mir Brosset die Originalitiit seiner Interpretationen zu iiberseh~tzen; insbesondere seine Erkl~rung der Blindheit des Willens (S. 26f.) rennt wohl offene Tfiren ein. PHILIP MERLAN ~cripps College, Claremont, California... (shrink)

European Journal of Philosophy, EarlyView.

Dieses Werk gibt eine Einf hrung in philosophische Probleme und Hintergr nde des mathematischen Denkens und Sprechens, Lehrens und Lernens. Es wendet sich an Lehrende und Studierende der Mathematik und Philosophie. Ausgangspunkt und immer wieder Bezugspunkt sind die reellen Zahlen. In pointierterWeise werden mathematische und philosophische Probleme und Fragen vermerkt, die sich auf dem Weg zu ihnen stellen. Ein umfangreicher Abriss von Auffassungen aus der Geschichte der Mathematik und Philosophie bis hin zu aktuellen Str mungen bildet den Hintergrund f r (...) ihre Diskussion. Kapitel ber Mengenlehre, Logik und Axiomatik, ber ungel ste und unl sbare Probleme und fundamentale Ergebnisse schlie en sich an. Ein R ckblick schlie t den Text ab. Die Erweiterung der zweiten Auflage betrifft im Kern drei Themen: Die Differenz zwischen Wahrheit und Beweisbarkeit, das philosophische Problem der Anwendbarkeit der Mathematik und den Begriff des Kontinuums. Sie f hrte zu einer berarbeitung weiter Teile des Buches. Der R ckblick ist neu geschrieben. Die Autoren Thomas Bed rftig (Leibniz Universit t Hannover) und Roman Murawski (Adam Mickiewicz Universit t Poznan) sind Mathematiker mit den Forschungsgebieten Philosophie, Geschichte und Grundlagen der Mathematik, Mathematikdidaktik und mathematische Logik. (shrink)

Lange Zeit befa?te sich die Politische Philosophie vornehmlich mit sozialen Institutionen und Systemen. Die Politik erschien dabei als eine Auseinandersetzung mit Interessen und um Macht. Vernachl?ssigt wurden die Subjekte, von denen in Demokratien doch alle politische Gewalt ausgeht. Dieser Vernachl?ssigung steuert das Thema der B?rgeridentit?t entgegen. Das entscheidende Subjekt, den B?rger, darf man allerdings weder auf den B?rger im engeren Sinn, den Staatsb?rger, verk?rzen, noch bei diesem die B?rgertugenden vergessen. Selbst wer den Staatsb?rger f?r den wichtigsten Aspekt h?lt, darf die (...) anderen Hinsichten nicht unterschlagen, zumal sie das Staatsb?rgersein beeinflussen. Die B?rgertugenden wiederum tragen als Rechtssinn, Gerechtigkeitssinn und Gemeinsinn zum Wohlergehen der Demokratie bei, geh?ren deshalb zum Kern eines aufgekl?rten Liberalismus. nema. (shrink)

Reason and Value collects fifteen brand-new papers by leading contemporary philosophers on themes from the moral philosophy of Joseph Raz. The subtlety and power of Raz's reflections on ethical topics - including especially his explorations of the connections between practical reason and the theory of value - make his writings a fertile source for anyone working in this area. The volume honours Raz's accomplishments in the area of ethical theorizing, and will contribute to an enhanced appreciation of the significance of (...) his work for the subject. (shrink)

Fergus Kelly: Thinking in Threes: The Triad in Early Irish Literature Brian Pullan: Charity and Usury: Jewish and Christian Lending in Renaissance and Early Modern Italy Noel Malcolm: The Crescent and the City of the Sun: Islam and the Renaissance Utopia of Tommaso Campanella H. R. Woudhuysen: The Foundations of Shakespeare's Text J. G. A. Pocock: The Re-Description of Enlightenment Andrew Hadfield: Michael Drayton and the Burden of History Eric Foner: Abraham Lincoln: The Great Emancipator? Gillian Beer: Revenants and Migrants: (...) Hardy, Butler, Woolf and Sebald Stephen Banfield: Scholarship and the Musical: Reclaiming Jerome Kern Brian Simpson: The Rule of Law in International Affairs Christopher Bayly: 'The Nation Within': British India at War 1939-47 John Vickers: Economics for Consumer Policy Gillian Feeley-Harnik: The Geography of Descent Susan Gathercole: Working Memory and Learning During the School Years Lothar Ledderose: Carving Stone Sutras before the World Ends: The Inscription of 1118 CE at Cloud Dwelling Monastery near Beijing. (shrink)

A common strategy unites much that philosophers have written about the virtues. The strategy can be traced back at least to Aristotle, who suggested that human beings have a characteristic function or activity, and that the virtues are traits of character which enable humans to perform this kind of activity excellently or well. The defining feature of this approach is that it treats the virtues as functional concepts, to be both identified and justified by reference to some independent goal or (...) end which they enable people to attain. Some recent philosophers seem to have hoped that by following this perfectionist strategy, we might attain a more convincing account of our moral practices than rule-based theories of ethics have been able to provide. (shrink)

Digitalisierung wird im vorliegenden Band aus der Theorieperspektive der Philosophischen Anthropologie Plessners betrachtet. Damit geht es im Kern darum, ob und inwieweit sich das Verhältnis von Mensch und Welt im Zeichen von Digitalisierung verändert. Die Verwendung unterschiedlicher Theoriefiguren, Thesen und Themenstellungen aus Plessners Werk erlaubt, die Vielfalt dessen, was mit Digitalisierung verbunden wird, zu systematisieren. Indem mit Plessner der Mensch verstanden wird als exzentrisch positionales Selbst, das Kognitives und Materiales verbindet, steht im Mittelpunkt, wie sich der Mensch eine Welt (...) schafft, die ihn selbst potentiell überformt. Gesellschaft, Autonomie, Technik, Stufen (im plessnerschen Sinne) und schliesslich der Mensch selbst sind die fünf Aspekte, die in den verschiedenen Beiträgen entfaltet werden: Was sind Charakteristika einer digitalen Gesellschaft? Geht die Epoche individueller Freiheit zu Ende? Was bedeutet Digitalisierung für die Autonomie des Menschen? In welches Verhältnis treten Mensch und Technik? Bringt Digitalisierung eine neue Stufe superior des Menschen hervor? Und wo bleibt der Mensch in der Digitalisierung?0. (shrink)

First published in 1981, this collection of essays was taken from Peters' larger work, Psychology and Ethical Development in order to provide a more focused volume on moral education for students. Peters' background in both psychology and philosophy makes the work distinctive, which is evident from the first two essays alone: 'Freud's theory of Moral Development in Relation to that of Piaget' and 'Moral Education and the Psychology of Character'. He also displays balance in his acceptance that reason and feeling (...) are both of great importance where the subject of moral education is concerned. Although written some time ago, the book discusses issues which are still of considerable interest and importance today. (shrink)

To represent extension of objects in particle physics, a modified Weyl theory is used by gauging the curvature radius of the local fibers in a soldered bundle over space-time possessing a homogeneous space G/H of the (4, 1)-de Sitter group G as fiber. Objects with extension determined by a fundamental length parameter R0 appear as islands D(i) in space-time characterized by a geometry of the Cartan-Weyl type (i.e., involving torsion and modified Weyl degrees of freedom). Farther away from the domains (...) D(i), space-time is identified with the pseudo-Riemannian space of general relativity. Extension and symmetry breaking are described by a set of additional fields ( $(\tilde \xi ^a (x),R(x)) \in {G \mathord{\left/ {\vphantom {G H}} \right. \kern-0em} H}x R^ +$ , given as a section on an associated bundle $\tilde E(B,{G \mathord{\left/ {\vphantom {G H}} \right. \kern-0em} H}x R^ + ,\tilde G)$ over space-time B with structural group $\tilde G$ = G ⊗ D(1), where D(1) is the dilation group. Field equations for the quantities defining the underlying bundle geometry and for the fields $\tilde \xi ^a (x)$ are established involving matter source currents derived from a generalized spinor wave function. Einstein's equations for the metric are regarded as the part of the $\tilde G$ -gauge theory related to the Lorentz subgroup H of G exhibiting thereby the broken nature of the $\tilde G$ -symmetry for regions outside the domains D(i). (shrink)

BLWith new text and full apparatus criticus The Eudemian Ethics was one of two ethical treatises which Aristotle wrote on the subject of ethica or `matters to do with character'. Although the two works cover much the same ground, the Nicomachean Ethics is better known; the poor manuscript tradition of the Eudemian Ethics has made correct translation and interpretation of the text extremely difficult. The subject of the work is the choice of a certain means of conduct, made by a (...) `man of practical wisdom', between two extremes of behaviour: asceticism and yielding to uncontrolled impulses. Aristotle also stresses the notion of moral intention and the importance of virtue of character. This new Oxford Classical Text of the Eudemian Ethics is the result of many years of work. After Sir David Ross's death, his original text was substantially reworked and revised by his friend and colleague R. R. Walzer, who was aided in the revision by his former pupil Mrs Jean Mingay, who continued his work after his death in 1974. Mrs Mingay was fortunate in being able to make use of previously unpublished contributions from D. J. Allan after his death in the late seventies, and more recently has been helped in her work by the suggestions of Professor D. A. Russell, David Robinson, and Christopher Rowe. (shrink)

The contributions to the Special Issue on Multiple Belief Change, Iterated Belief Change and Preference Aggregation are divided into three parts. Four contributions are grouped under the heading "multiple belief change" (Part I, with authors M. Falappa, E. Fermé, G. Kern-Isberner, P. Peppas, M. Reis, and G. Simari), five contributions under the heading "iterated belief change" (Part II, with authors G. Bonanno, S.O. Hansson, A. Nayak, M. Orgun, R. Ramachandran, H. Rott, and E. Weydert). These papers do not only (...) pick up the particular questions raised, but also extend and modify the framework of Alchourrón, Gärdenfors and Makinson. Part III deals with preference aggregation and consists of one contribution (by F. Herzberg and D. Eckert). (shrink)

Hz. Peygamberin vefatıyla birlikte, hilâfet tartışması başta olmak üzere ashap birçok problemle karşı karşıya kalmış, sorunlar çözülmüş gibi görünse de bu dönem, sonradan ortaya çıkacak olan mezhep ve fırkaların oluşum sürecini tetiklemiştir. Hilâfetin ilk otuz yılında yaşanan olumsuz hadiselere, Emevî devletinin kurucusu Muâviye (ö. 60/680)’nin izlediği siyaset anlayışından kaynaklanan bazı olumsuzluklar da eklenince ümmet arasında fırkalaşma dönemi başlamıştır. Önce bazı Emevî sonra da bazı Abbasî halifelerinin yanlış uygulamalarına şahit olan Ebû Hanîfe (ö. 150/767), çözüm odaklı görüşleriyle ümmetin bu ihtilaf dönemine (...) damga vurmuştur. O, aklî bilgiyi önceleyen ve nassların açıklanmasında kullanan düşünürlerin başında gelmektedir. Onun itikadî eserleriyle İslâm düşüncesine kazandırdığı yenilikçi yaklaşım özellikle de akaide dair ilk metin kabul edilen el-Âlim ve’l-müte‘allim’deki görüşleri, eleştiri oklarının kendisine yönelmesine sebep olmuş, onu hadis taraftarlarının galiz ithamlarının hedefi yapmıştır. Ehl-i Rey’in lideri ve Mürcie’nin iman akîdesinin destekçisi olmasının da bu eleştirilerde payı büyük olmuştur. Ayrıca onu kendilerinden sayan Mu‘tezile’ye eleştiriler yöneltmesi; Mu‘tezile mensuplarınca onun herhangi bir itikadî eseri olmadığı iddialarını dillendirmesine sebep olmuştur. Diğer taraftan Zehebî, el-Âlim ve’l-müte‘allim’in Ebû Hanîfe’ye değil, Ebû Mukātil es-Semerkāndî’ye nispet edildiğini söylemiştir. Bu görüş F. Kern, J. Schacht, W. Madelung ve U. Rudolph gibi bazı müsteşrikler tarafından kabul görmüş ve Ebû Hanîfe’ye nispet edilen itikad eserlerinin otantik olup olmadığı tartışmalarını beraberinde getirmiştir. Özellikle Schacht tarafından bazı varsayımlar yapılarak, el-Âlim ve’l-müte‘allim’in Ebû Hanîfe’ye aidiyeti reddedilmiştir. Hatta Schacht bu eseri ilk dönemin Mürcie kaynaklarından biri kabul ederek, Ebû Hanîfe’ye ait olmayışının en büyük delili saymıştır. Ancak Âlimlerin çoğunluğuna göre el-Âlim ve’l-müte‘allim ve kendisine nispet edilen diğer eserlerindeki itikadî görüşler Ebû Hanîfe’ye aittir. Bu kanaatin oluşmasında etkili olan en büyük faktör, Hanefî-Mâtürîdî ekolünün mimarlarından olan Mâtürîdî (ö. 333/944) olmuştur. O, el-Âlim ve’l-müte‘allim’in râvilerinden birisi olduğu gibi, Te’vîlât’ında bu eseri Ebû Hanîfe’ye nispet etmiş ve eserden nakillerde bulunmuştur. Onun Kitâbü’t-Tevhîd’deki büyük günahlara dair görüşleri de el-Âlim ve’l-müte‘allim’de bu konuda yer verilen görüşlere benzemektedir. Bu araştırmada; el-Âlim ve’l-müte‘allim’in rivayet zincirinde bulunan ve eserin Semerkant’ta yayılışına katkı sunan âlimler hakkında kısaca bilgiler verilmiştir. Eserin içeriğini oluşturan itikadî münakaşalardan; imanın mahiyeti, iman-amel ayrılığı, imanda eşitlik, din-şeriat ayrımı, büyük günah ve ircâ meseleleri o günün güncel konularıdır. Bu başlıklar üzerinden, eserin Mâtürîdî üzerindeki önemli izleri de tespit edilmeye çalışılmıştır. Hanefî-Mâtürîdî düşüncenin itikadî nüvesini teşkil eden bu eserin, günümüze kadar geçirdiği sürecin değerlendirilerek kaynak kritiğinin yapılmış olması, araştırmayı benzerlerinden ayırmaktadır. (shrink)

In this article, we critically scrutinize the principle of proportionality when used in the context of security and government surveillance. We argue that McMahan’s distinction from just warfare between narrow proportionality and wide proportionality can generally apply to the context of surveillance. We argue that narrow proportionality applies more or less directly to cases in which the surveilled is liable and that the wide proportionality principle applies to cases characterized by ‘collateral intrusion’. We argue, however, that a more demanding criterion (...) than the lesser-evil justification that wide proportionality frequently entails is necessary in cases characterized by intentional intrusion upon non-liable individuals. The distinction between foreseeing and intending intrusion into the lives of individuals who are not liable has not previously been specifically addressed in discussions concerning surveillance ethics. This specification is thus increasingly important due to the general growing tendency for adherence to the precautionary principle and policies aimed at anticipating criminal acts before they are committed. Preventive surveillance of non-liable actors is considered an important instrument for obtaining this aim and thus calls for moral scrutiny in terms of permissibility and proportionality. We suggest the concept ‘wide proportionality +’ which applies to cases of intentional intrusion of non-liable individuals. (shrink)